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I. Why Teach Grammar to Young Children?
II. General Thoughts on Teaching Our English Language
III. Formal Grammar for Young Children
A. What a Child Needs to Learn
1. How Sentences Are Put Together
2. Punctuation
3. Parts of Speech and How to Use Correctly
B. Resources
1. First Language Lessons 1, 2, 3, (4 in process)
2. Rod & Staff
3. A Beka
4. Voyages in English
C. The Goals to Reach for the Early Grades
1. Recognizing Correctly-spoken English
2. Speaking Correctly
3. Training Attention
4. Beginning Writing Skills
IV. Tools for Learning Language
A. Memory Work
l. Poems
2. Brief Rules and Definitions
3. Other
a. History and Science Facts
b. Catechisms
c. Scripture
How to Memorize:
1. Read and Discuss
2. Title, Author, Poem 3 Times in a Row
3. Repeat Triple Reading 2 More Times That Day
4. Subsequent Days, 3 Times in a Row Daily
5. Student Tries to Say Parts Along with You or Tape
6. When He Knows Entire Poem Practice in Front of
Mirror and Then to Real People
B. Copywork
1. Importance of Copy Work
2. How to Teach Copy Work
C. Dictation
1.What Dictation Accomplishes
2. How to Teach Dictation
3.What Length to Work Up to?
D. Narration
1. Narration of Pictures
2. Narration of Stories
3. Narration of Other Material
a. History
b. Literature
c. Science
4. Purpose of Narration
a. To Help the Child Put Ideas into Words
b. To Check Comprehension (Tests Not Needed
If You Use Narration)
V. How to Teach Grammar to Young Children
A. Oral Practice
B. Repetition
VI. What to Memorize in First and Second Grades
A. Names and Definitions of All 8 Parts of Speech:
Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Adverbs,
Prepositions, Articles, Conjunctions, Interjections
B. Lists of State of Being, Linking, and Helping Verbs:
Am, Is, Are, Be, Being, Been, Have, Has, Had,
Do, Does, Did, Shall, Will, Should, Would,
May, Might, Must, Can, Could
C. Prepositions and Importance of Memorizing Them
Aboard, About, Above, Across,
After, Against, Along, Among, Around, At,
Before, Behind, Below, Beneath,
Beside, Between, Beyond, By,
Down, During, Except, For, From,
Inside, Into, Like,
Near, Of, Off, On, Over,
Past, Since, Through, Throughout,
To, Toward, Under, Underneath,
Until, Up, Upon, With, Within, Without
VII. Diagramming
First Language Lessons is an easy-to-use, scripted guide to grammar and composition that makes successful teaching simple for parents. The series uses the classical techniques of memorization, copywork, dictation, and narration to develop your child's language ability in the formative first years of study.
First Language Lessons Levels 1 and 2
See Sample Lessons
This one book is all you need to teach grammar and writing for first and second grade. The lessons are short but effective; each one takes 5-15 minutes. The first 40 lessons are oral, since most first graders are not ready to do a lot of pencil-work. (There are enrichment exercises for those children who write easily.)
This book teaches grammar concepts in a gentle, yet thorough, way. In just minutes a day, two to three times per week, your child will learn eight parts of speech, the basic rules of capitalization and punctuation, the four types of sentences, and beginning storytelling and narration skills. For a detailed list of the topics covered in first and second grade, click here. To purchase the book (spiral-bound and hardback editions are on sale: $20.95!), click here.
You can also purchase the audio companion to Levels 1 and 2 (click here for info). This CD is an excellent memory aid; it contains all the poems to be memorized, as well as chanted and sung versions of the all the lists of the parts of speech. The audio companion also contains dramatic readings of all the stories in the book (so it is perfect for rest time, too).
First Language Lessons Level 3
See Sample Lessons of the Teacher's Guide and the Student Workbook.
Level 3 reinforces the grammar and writing concepts introduced in the previous levels. It also introduces new material, including sentence diagramming. Level 3 has two parts: the instructor book and the student workbook. The instructor book has the same simple-to-use, scripted format as the previous levels. The accompanying student workbook makes it easier for busy parents to spend more time teaching, and less time preparing (you don't have to hand-draw any diagram frames!).
First Language Lessons Level 3 is designed to follow Levels 1 and 2, but can be used as a first grammar text for older students. The optional end-units on writing letters, dictionary skills, and oral usage allow you to tailor the instruction to the needs of your child.
For a detailed list of the topics covered in Level 3, click here.
Topics Covered in First Language Lessons, Levels 1, 2, and 3
Topics Covered in Level 1
· Common nouns (persons, places, things, and ideas)
· Proper nouns
o First names
o Family names
o Middle names
o Cities and states
o Days of week
o Months of the year
o Holidays
· Personal pronouns
· Action Verbs
· Seasons
· Initials
· Addresses
· Titles of Respect
· Dates
· Sentences
o Statements
o Commands
o Questions
o Exclamations
· Capitalization
o The pronouns
o Proper nouns
o Titles of works
o In poetry
· 6 Poem Memorizations
· 8 Story Narrations
· 4 Picture Narrations
Topics Covered in Level 2
Common and proper noun review
· Pronoun review
· Action verb review
· Four types of sentences review
· State of being verbs
· Linking verbs
· Helping verbs
· Commas in a series
· Contractions
· Adjectives
· Predicate adjectives
· Interjections
· Conjunctions
· Direct quotations
· Indirect Quotations
· Adverbs
· Articles
· Prepositions
· Synonyms
· Antonyms
· Letter-writing skills
· Writing thank-you notes
· Writing postcards
· Writing a friendly letter
· Addressing an envelope
· 4 Poem Memorizations
· 7 Story Narrations
· 5 Picture Narrations
Topics Covered in Level 3
Items in blue are new to this level.
· Parts of a book
· Common and Proper Nouns
· Forming plural nouns
· Pronouns
· Action verbs
· Helping verbs
· State of being verbs
· Linking verbs
· Sentences
o Statements
o Commands
o Questions
o Exclamations
· Adjectives
· Possessive nouns (a.k.a. adjectives that tell "whose")
· Articles
· Adverbs (including adverbs that tell "to what extent")
· Direct objects
· Simple and complete subjects and predicates
· Predicate nominatives
· Predicate adjectives
· Prepositions
o Prepositional phrases
o Object of the preposition
· Initials
· Titles of Respect
· Months of the year (with abbreviations)
· Days of week (with abbreviations)
· Conjunctions
· Commas in a series
· Commas in Direct Address
· Contractions
· Direct quotations
· Indirect quotations
· Compound subjects
· Compound verbs
· Comparative and superlative adjectives
· Interjections
· Diagramming of
o Subjects (including compound subjects)
o Verbs and verb phrases (including compound predicates)
o Adjectives modifying subjects, direct objects, and predicate nominatives
o Adverbs modifying verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs
o Direct objects
o Predicate nominatives
o Predicate adjectives
o Command sentences (the "you" understood subject)
o Question sentences (rearranging word order)
o Conjunctions (in compound subjects, compound verbs, and direct objects)
o Interjections
o Contractions
· 6 Nonfiction Narration Exercises
· 6 Poem Memorizations
· Optional End-Units
1. Writing Letters
• Writing dates
• Writing a thank-you letter
• Addressing the envelope
• Writing a friendly letter
2. Dictionary Skills
• Alphabetizing by first, second, and third letter
• Looking up words in the dictionary
• Parts of the entry
• Syllables and phonetic spelling
• Words with more than one meaning and/or pronunciation
• Synonyms and antonyms (using a thesaurus)
3. Oral Usage
• Common irregular verbs
• Sit and set
• Lay and lie
• Subject and object pronouns
• Avoiding double negatives
Using the Classical Techniques
The Four Strand Approach
Strand 1: Memorization
In First Language Lessons, the student memorizes grammar rules and definitions as well as poetry. Young students are highly retentive and enjoy memorizing!
Memorizing Poetry
The rewards of memorizing poetry are two-fold. First, poems store beautiful language in the student's mind. Second, memorizing poetry gives the student confidence that he can indeed retain material. This confidence will extend to other school subjects, and he will memorize material from history, science, and literature.
Memorizing Rules and Definitions
The child memorizes the definitions of the parts of speech and the list of helping verbs and prepositions. The rules and definitions may not be completely understood when they are committed to memory, but they will be a resource for the child as he continues to exercise his growing language skills.
Strand 2: Copywork and Dictation
Copywork
This early training in writing uses correct models to shape the child's writing skills. It also allows children to practice proper writing techniques without forcing them to come up with original ideas. This classical technique is particularly useful in the early grades, while children are still learning the mode of written language. Copying allows the student to store in his mind (and muscle memory) the look and feel of properly written language.
Dictation
When you dictate a sentence to the student, he must write it without looking at a written model. Dictation teaches the student to picture a sentence in his mind before putting it down on paper. Dictation should be a precursor to any original writing, since it allows the young writer to practice mechanics without also struggling to produce original content.
Strand 3: Narration
The student practices producing original content orally. Narration develops the child's ability to focus on one point and express his ideas in complete sentences. First Language Lessons uses two types of narration.
Picture Narration
The child examines a picture and then answers questions about the picture. This trains the child in attention, observation, and expression. The technique is used in the first two levels of this series.
Story Narration
Story narration is simply the student retelling a passage that he has read or heard, putting it in his own words. Narration helps the student to listen with attention, to grasp the main point of a work, to think through a sequence of events, and to reproduce the events in his own words in proper, logical order. In the first two levels, the child narrates stories. In the third level, the child narrates from nonfiction passages from history and science.
Strand 4: Grammar
This book teaches advanced grammar concepts to young students in a pleasant way. Grammar is taught in dialog with the child; he is actively engaged with you and the material. The concepts and skills are reinforced with the classical techniques of memorization, copywork, and dictation.
About the Authors
Jessie Wise, a former elementary school teacher and principal, is an educational consultant, speaker, and writer. She is the co-author of The Well-Trained Mind, A Guide to Classical Education at Home and The Ordinary Parent's Guide to Teaching Reading. She is also the author of Levels 1 and 2 of the First Language Lessons series.
Sara Buffington is a writer and children's book editor with teaching experience of her own. She is the co-author of The Ordinary Parent's Guide to Teaching Reading.
Frequently Asked Questions
Q: Do I need a separate writing program?
First Language Lessons is primarily a grammar program, but you can't teach grammar in isolation. Proper grammar is evidenced in writing. First Language Lessons uses the classical techniques of copywork, dictation, and narration. These are the same techniques the child uses to develop his writing ability in the early grades. First Language Lessons teaches you how to do copywork, dictation, and narration, but in order give your child adequate instruction in writing, he needs to practice these skills outside of the grammar lesson as well. You can select sentences for him to copy from his history, literature, and science books. You can have him narrate from short passages in his other subjects as well. At this level, the narrations should be guided (you ask the child questions after you read the passage to make sure he understood the material). Here is a list of what you should be doing in each grade:
First Grade:
Copywork 2 days/week
Narration 2 days/week
Second Grade
Copywork 1 day/week
Dictation 1 day/week
Narration 2 days/week
Third Grade
Dictation 2 days/week
Narration 2 days/week
This list represents the total amount of copywork, narration, and dictation that a child should be doing each week. If the second-grade child does dictation as part of his grammar lesson, do not make him do dictation in another subject that week (unless he wants to).
Q: What other resources do I need to round out language arts study?
Language arts includes reading, writing, spelling, and grammar. First Language Lessons is your grammar. For writing, see the above question. For reading, you need to teach the child how read phonetically. (We wrote a reading book, The Ordinary Parent's Guide to Teaching Reading. Go to http://ordinaryparents.com/ to learn more about that book.) The child also needs to read literature (or be read aloud to). If you are using The Story of the World series, and your child is reading some of the books on the supplemental literature list, you are fulfilling that requirement. For spelling, you can go back through your phonics book and use it as a spelling primer, or you can use a separate spelling program such as Spelling Workout or Spelling Power. The student also needs a penmanship program, such as Zaner-Bloser or Handwriting Without Tears. Once the child is forming letters easily, see the question above to develop his writing.
Q: Is Level 3 the new Well-Trained Mind recommendation for third grade grammar?
Yes. First Language Lessons Level 3 is Susan and Jessie's top choice for third grade grammar, over Rod and Staff and Voyages in English. A student who has completed Level 3 should have no problem transitioning to the 4th grade level of either of those programs.
Q: How closely should I follow the lesson scripting?
That is up to you. Some parents like to open the book and read the scripting verbatim. Others like to use the scripting as a jumping-off point, substituting their own phrasing or modifying an exercise so it is more meaningful and effective for their particular child.
Q: I scanned the first lessons in Level 1 and the child says the definition of a noun so many times. Is all that repetition really necessary?
Yes. The goal of memorizing short grammar rules and definitions is not for the child to remember a definition for ten minutes, or even for ten days. The goal is for the child to remember it for the rest of her life. The rules and lists are an invaluable resource that the child will draw upon in later years. You may find it boring and tedious to repeat a definition three times a day, but your young child does not. She delights in showing off her mastery of the material, and she benefits from all the repetition. Do your best to hide your boredom and pleasantly drill the rules and lists. This takes a few minutes per day, and the rewards will last your child's lifetime.
Q: Why teach diagramming?
Level 3 introduces the sentence diagram. This is essentially a picture of a sentence; a diagram shows how all of the sentence parts operate. At this level, a diagram is a visual reinforcement of the function of each part of speech and clearly displays the complete subject and predicate. Plus, most students find it very fun. (The diagram of "Cooks mixed sugar, milk, flour, eggs, cinnamon, nutmeg, apples, and raisins," looks like a giant spider!)
Level 3 is a gentle introduction to diagramming. Future levels in this series will continue to work on this skill. It is not only a benefit to grammar study; a student who knows how to diagram can improve his writing. If he writes an unclear, poorly-constructed sentence that simply sounds wrong, he can find and fix the error by attempting to diagram the sentence. The diagram will quickly reveal the error (you can spot a misplaced modifier in an instant). The student can then rewrite his sentence. He is learning to edit his own work: he can find his own error, tell you why it is wrong, and fix it himself.
Q: Are there any plans for future books in this series?
Yes. We are currently working on Level 4 (no release date yet).
If you have any other questions, you can email them to info@peacehillpress.com.
SECOND-LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODS
Principles & Procedures
Jill Kerper Mora, Ed.D.
San Diego State University
Below is a description of the basic principles and procedures of the most recognized methods for teaching a second or foreign language.
For a survey of the history of second or foreign language teaching click here.
Click here for L2 teaching methods described below:
Grammar-Translation Approach
Direct Approach
Reading Approach
Audiolingual Method
Community Language Learning
The Silent Way
Communicative Approach--Functional-Notional
Total Physical Response
The Grammar-Translation Approach
This approach was historically used in teaching Greek and Latin. The approach was generalized to teaching modern languages.
Classes are taught in the students' mother tongue, with little active use of the target language. Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists. Elaborate explanations of grammar are always provided. Grammar instruction provides the rules for putting words together; instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words. Reading of difficult texts is begun early in the course of study. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue, and vice versa. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
For a review of elements of grammar teaching click here.
The Direct Approach
This approach was developed initially as a reaction to the grammar-translation approach in an attempt to integrate more use of the target language in instruction.
Lessons begin with a dialogue using a modern conversational style in the target language. Material is first presented orally with actions or pictures. The mother tongue is NEVER, NEVER used. There is no translation. The preferred type of exercise is a series of questions in the target language based on the dialogue or an anecdotal narrative. Questions are answered in the target language. Grammar is taught inductively--rules are generalized from the practice and experience with the target language. Verbs are used first and systematically conjugated only much later after some oral mastery of the target language. Advanced students read literature for comprehension and pleasure. Literary texts are not analyzed grammatically. The culture associated with the target language is also taught inductively. Culture is considered an important aspect of learning the language.
The Reading Approach
This approach is selected for practical and academic reasons. For specific uses of the language in graduate or scientific studies. The approach is for people who do not travel abroad for whom reading is the one usable skill in a foreign language.
The priority in studying the target language is first, reading ability and second, current and/or historical knowledge of the country where the target language is spoken. Only the grammar necessary for reading comprehension and fluency is taught. Minimal attention is paid to pronunciation or gaining conversational skills in the target language. From the beginning, a great amount of reading is done in L2, both in and out of class. The vocabulary of the early reading passages and texts is strictly controlled for difficulty. Vocabulary is expanded as quickly as possible, since the acquisition of vocabulary is considered more important that grammatical skill. Translation reappears in this approach as a respectable classroom procedure related to comprehension of the written text.
The Audiolingual Method
This method is based on the principles of behavior psychology. It adapted many of the principles and procedures of the Direct Method, in part as a reaction to the lack of speaking skills of the Reading Approach.
New material is presented in the form of a dialogue. Based on the principle that language learning is habit formation, the method fosters dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over-learning. Structures are sequenced and taught one at a time. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. Little or no grammatical explanations are provided; grammar is taught inductively. Skills are sequenced: Listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed in order. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. Teaching points are determined by contrastive analysis between L1 and L2. There is abundant use of language laboratories, tapes and visual aids. There is an extended pre-reading period at the beginning of the course. Great importance is given to precise native-like pronunciation. Use of the mother tongue by the teacher is permitted, but discouraged among and by the students. Successful responses are reinforced; great care is taken to prevent learner errors. There is a tendency to focus on manipulation of the target language and to disregard content and meaning.
Hints for Using Audio-lingual Drills in L2 Teaching
1. The teacher must be careful to insure that all of the utterances which students will make are actually within the practiced pattern. For example, the use of the AUX verb have should not suddenly switch to have as a main verb.
2. Drills should be conducted as rapidly as possibly so as to insure automaticity and to establish a system.
3. Ignore all but gross errors of pronunciation when drilling for grammar practice.
4. Use of shortcuts to keep the pace o drills at a maximum. Use hand motions, signal cards, notes, etc. to cue response. You are a choir director.
5. Use normal English stress, intonation, and juncture patterns conscientiously.
6. Drill material should always be meaningful. If the content words are not known, teach their meanings.
7. Intersperse short periods of drill (about 10 minutes) with very brief alternative activities to avoid fatigue and boredom.
8. Introduce the drill in this way:
a. Focus (by writing on the board, for example)
b. Exemplify (by speaking model sentences)
c. Explain (if a simple grammatical explanation is needed)
d. Drill
9. Don’t stand in one place; move about the room standing next to as many different students as possible to spot check their production. Thus you will know who to give more practice to during individual drilling.
10. Use the "backward buildup" technique for long and/or difficult patterns.
--tomorrow
--in the cafeteria tomorrow
--will be eating in the cafeteria tomorrow
--Those boys will be eating in the cafeteria tomorrow.
11. Arrange to present drills in the order of increasing complexity of student response. The question is: How much internal organization or decision making must the student do in order to make a response in this drill. Thus: imitation first, single-slot substitution next, then free response last.
Community Language Learning
Curran, Charles A. Counseling-Learning in Second Languages. Apple River, Illinois: Apple River Press, 1976.
This methodology is not based on the usual methods by which languages are taught. Rather the approach is patterned upon counseling techniques and adapted to the peculiar anxiety and threat as well as the personal and language problems a person encounters in the learning of foreign languages. Consequently, the learner is not thought of as a student but as a client. The native instructors of the language are not considered teachers but, rather are trained in counseling skills adapted to their roles as language counselors.
The language-counseling relationship begins with the client's linguistic confusion and conflict. The aim of the language counselor's skill is first to communicate an empathy for the client's threatened inadequate state and to aid him linguistically. Then slowly the teacher-counselor strives to enable him to arrive at his own increasingly independent language adequacy. This process is furthered by the language counselor's ability to establish a warm, understanding, and accepting relationship, thus becoming an "other-language self" for the client. The process involves five stages of adaptation:
STAGE 1
The client is completely dependent on the language counselor.
1. First, he expresses only to the counselor and in English what he wishes to say to the group. Each group member overhears this English exchange but no other members of the group are involved in the interaction.
2. The counselor then reflects these ideas back to the client in the foreign language in a warm, accepting tone, in simple language in phrases of five or six words.
3. The client turns to the group and presents his ideas in the foreign language. He has the counselor's aid if he mispronounces or hesitates on a word or phrase. This is the client's maximum security stage.
STAGE 2
1. Same as above.
2. The client turns and begins to speak the foreign language directly to the group.
3. The counselor aids only as the client hesitates or turns for help. These small independent steps are signs of positive confidence and hope.
STAGE 3
1. The client speaks directly to the group in the foreign language. This presumes that the group has now acquired the ability to understand his simple phrases.
2. Same as 3 above. This presumes the client's greater confidence, independence, and proportionate insight into the relationship of phrases, grammar, and ideas. Translation is given only when a group member desires it.
STAGE 4
1. The client is now speaking freely and complexly in the foreign language. Presumes group's understanding.
2. The counselor directly intervenes in grammatical error, mispronunciation, or where aid in complex expression is needed. The client is sufficiently secure to take correction.
STAGE 5
1. Same as stage 4.
2. The counselor intervenes not only to offer correction but to add idioms and more elegant constructions.
3. At this stage the client can become counselor to the group in stages 1, 2, and 3.
The Silent Way
Caleb Gattegno, Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way. New York City: Educational Solutions, 1972.
Procedures
This method begins by using a set of colored rods and verbal commands in order to achieve the following:
To avoid the use of the vernacular. To create simple linguistic situations that remain under the complete control of the teacher To pass on to the learners the responsibility for the utterances of the descriptions of the objects shown or the actions performed. To let the teacher concentrate on what the students say and how they are saying it, drawing their attention to the differences in pronunciation and the flow of words. To generate a serious game-like situation in which the rules are implicitly agreed upon by giving meaning to the gestures of the teacher and his mime. To permit almost from the start a switch from the lone voice of the teacher using the foreign language to a number of voices using it. This introduces components of pitch, timbre and intensity that will constantly reduce the impact of one voice and hence reduce imitation and encourage personal production of one's own brand of the sounds.
To provide the support of perception and action to the intellectual guess of what the noises mean, thus bring in the arsenal of the usual criteria of experience already developed and automatic in one's use of the mother tongue. To provide a duration of spontaneous speech upon which the teacher and the students can work to obtain a similarity of melody to the one heard, thus providing melodic integrative schemata from the start.
Materials
The complete set of materials utilized as the language learning progresses include:
A set of colored wooden rods A set of wall charts containing words of a "functional" vocabulary and some additional ones; a pointer for use with the charts in Visual Dictation A color coded phonic chart(s) Tapes or discs, as required; films Drawings and pictures, and a set of accompanying worksheets Transparencies, three texts, a Book of Stories, worksheets
Functional-notional Approach
Finocchiaro, M. & Brumfit, C. (1983). The Functional-Notional Approach. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
This method of language teaching is categorized along with others under the rubric of a communicative approach. The method stresses a means of organizing a language syllabus. The emphasis is on breaking down the global concept of language into units of analysis in terms of communicative situations in which they are used.
Notions are meaning elements that may be expressed through nouns, pronouns, verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, adjectives or adverbs. The use of particular notions depends on three major factors: a. the functions b. the elements in the situation, and c. the topic being discussed.
A situation may affect variations of language such as the use of dialects, the formality or informality of the language and the mode of expression. Situation includes the following elements:
A. The persons taking part in the speech act
B. The place where the conversation occurs
C. The time the speech act is taking place
D. The topic or activity that is being discussed
Exponents are the language utterances or statements that stem from the function, the situation and the topic.
Code is the shared language of a community of speakers.
Code-switching is a change or switch in code during the speech act, which many theorists believe is purposeful behavior to convey bonding, language prestige or other elements of interpersonal relations between the speakers.
Functional Categories of Language
Mary Finocchiaro (1983, p. 65-66) has placed the functional categories under five headings as noted below: personal, interpersonal, directive, referential, and imaginative.
Personal = Clarifying or arranging one’s ideas; expressing one’s thoughts or feelings: love, joy, pleasure, happiness, surprise, likes, satisfaction, dislikes, disappointment, distress, pain, anger, anguish, fear, anxiety, sorrow, frustration, annoyance at missed opportunities, moral, intellectual and social concerns; and the everyday feelings of hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleepiness, cold, or warmth
Interpersonal = Enabling us to establish and maintain desirable social and working relationships: Enabling us to establish and maintain desirable social and working relationships:
· greetings and leave takings
· introducing people to others
· identifying oneself to others
· expressing joy at another’s success
· expressing concern for other people’s welfare
· extending and accepting invitations
· refusing invitations politely or making alternative arrangements
· making appointments for meetings
· breaking appointments politely and arranging another mutually convenient time
· apologizing
· excusing oneself and accepting excuses for not meeting commitments
· indicating agreement or disagreement
· interrupting another speaker politely
· changing an embarrassing subject
· receiving visitors and paying visits to others
· offering food or drinks and accepting or declining politely
· sharing wishes, hopes, desires, problems
· making promises and committing oneself to some action
· complimenting someone
· making excuses
· expressing and acknowledging gratitude
Directive = Attempting to influence the actions of others; accepting or refusing direction:
· making suggestions in which the speaker is included
· making requests; making suggestions
· refusing to accept a suggestion or a request but offering an alternative
· persuading someone to change his point of view
· requesting and granting permission
· asking for help and responding to a plea for help
· forbidding someone to do something; issuing a command
· giving and responding to instructions
· warning someone
· discouraging someone from pursuing a course of action
· establishing guidelines and deadlines for the completion of actions
· asking for directions or instructions
Referential = talking or reporting about things, actions, events, or people in the environment in the past or in the future; talking about language (what is termed the metalinguistic function: = talking or reporting about things, actions, events, or people in the environment in the past or in the future; talking about language (what is termed the metalinguistic function:
· identifying items or people in the classroom, the school the home, the community
· asking for a description of someone or something
· defining something or a language item or asking for a definition
· paraphrasing, summarizing, or translating (L1 to L2 or vice versa)
· explaining or asking for explanations of how something works
· comparing or contrasting things
· discussing possibilities, probabilities, or capabilities of doing something
· requesting or reporting facts about events or actions
· evaluating the results of an action or event
Imaginative = Discussions involving elements of creativity and artistic expression
· discussing a poem, a story, a piece of music, a play, a painting, a film, a TV program, etc.
· expanding ideas suggested by other or by a piece of literature or reading material
· creating rhymes, poetry, stories or plays
· recombining familiar dialogs or passages creatively
· suggesting original beginnings or endings to dialogs or stories
· solving problems or mysteries
Total Physical Response
James J. Asher, Learning Another Language Through Actions. San Jose, California: AccuPrint, 1979.
James J. Asher defines the Total Physical Response (TPR) method as one that combines information and skills through the use of the kinesthetic sensory system. This combination of skills allows the student to assimilate information and skills at a rapid rate. As a result, this success leads to a high degree of motivation. The basic tenets are:
Understanding the spoken language before developing the skills of speaking. Imperatives are the main structures to transfer or communicate information. The student is not forced to speak, but is allowed an individual readiness period and allowed to spontaneously begin to speak when the student feels comfortable and confident in understanding and producing the utterances.
TECHNIQUE
Step I The teacher says the commands as he himself performs the action.
Step 2 The teacher says the command as both the teacher and the students then perform the action.
Step 3 The teacher says the command but only students perform the action
Step 4 The teacher tells one student at a time to do commands
Step 5 The roles of teacher and student are reversed. Students give commands to teacher and to other students.
Step 6 The teacher and student allow for command expansion or produces new
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پشتیبانی و بروزرسانی وبلاگ گروه آموزشی ناحیه 2 ساری / فریبا روشن/